Christian dating in zimbabwe

Dating > Christian dating in zimbabwe

Click here: ※ Christian dating in zimbabwe ※ ♥ Christian dating in zimbabwe

The integration period saw the formation of The ZNA and AFZ as separate entities under the command of Rtd General and Air Marshal who retired in 1982, and was replaced by Air Marshal Azim Daudpota who handed over command to the late Rtd in 1985. During the , Robert Mugabe and the ZANU party secured a landslide victory.

Retrieved 1 June 2016. Everyone who loves has been born of God and custodes God. From 1999—2009, Zimbabwe saw the lowest ever economic growth with an annual GDP decrease of 6. Retrieved 4 April 2011. The opposition MDC called for research on all violence that included killings of its supporters during disputed elections in 2008. Retrieved 13 February 2009. This Shona state ruled much of the area that is known as Zimbabwe today, and parts of central. Retrieved 6 January 2008. By 2005, the purchasing power of the average Zimbabwean had dropped to the same levels in real terms as 1953. Retrieved 19 December 2008.

Christians are trustworthy and compassionate people. As a result, many press organisations have been set up in both neighbouring and Western countries by Zimbabweans. Zimbabwe is faced with recurring droughts, the latest one commencing early in 2015 and ongoing into 2016. Major factions in this camp included the led by from 1975 , and the led by from its founding in the early 1960s.

Online Dating Zimbabwe - In addition, Zimbabwean-trained doctors only require one year of residence to be fully licensed doctors in the United States.

The United States dollar has been adopted as the official currency for all government transactions. Zimbabwe , officially the Republic of Zimbabwe, is a located in , between the and , bordered by , , and. The capital and largest city is. A country of roughly 16 million people, Zimbabwe has 16 , with , , and the most commonly used. Since the 11th century, present-day Zimbabwe has been the site of several organised states and kingdoms as well as a major route for migration and trade. The of first the present territory during the 1890s; it became the British colony of in 1923. In 1965, the conservative as. The state endured international isolation and a 15-year with forces; this culminated in a that established universal enfranchisement and sovereignty as Zimbabwe in April 1980. Zimbabwe then joined the , from which it was suspended in 2002 for breaches of international law by its then government and from which it withdrew from in December 2003. It is a member of the , the SADC , the AU , and the COMESA. Under Mugabe's regime, the state security apparatus dominated the country and was responsible for widespread violations. Mugabe maintained the revolutionary socialist rhetoric of the era, blaming Zimbabwe's economic woes on conspiring Western capitalist countries. The country has been in economic decline since the 1990s, experiencing several crashes and along the way. On 15 November 2017, in the wake of over a year of against his government as well as Zimbabwe's rapidly declining economy, by in a. On 19 November 2017, ZANU-PF sacked Robert Mugabe as party leader and appointed former Vice President in his place. On 21 November 2017, Mugabe tendered his resignation prior to impeachment proceedings being completed. Two different theories address the origin of the word. The Karanga-speaking Shona people live around Great Zimbabwe in the modern-day of. Zimbabwe was formerly known as 1898 , 1965 , and 1979. The black nationalist factions subsequently used the name during the Second campaigns against the Rhodesian government during the of 1964—1979. Major factions in this camp included the led by from 1975 , and the led by from its founding in the early 1960s. Proto-Shona-speaking societies first emerged in the middle Limpopo valley in the 9th century before moving on to the Zimbabwean highlands. The Zimbabwean plateau eventually became the centre of subsequent Shona states, beginning around the 10th century. Around the early 10th century, trade developed with on the Indian Ocean coast, helping to develop the in the 11th century. This was the precursor to the more impressive Shona civilisations that would dominate the region during the 13th to 15th centuries, evidenced by ruins at , near , and other smaller sites. The main archaeological site uses a unique dry stone architecture. The Kingdom of Mapungubwe was the first in a series of sophisticated trade states developed in Zimbabwe by the time of the first European explorers from Portugal. They traded in gold, ivory, and copper for cloth and glass. From about 1300 until 1600, Mapungubwe was eclipsed by the. This Shona state further refined and expanded upon Mapungubwe's stone architecture, which survives to this day at the ruins of the kingdom's capital of Great Zimbabwe. This Shona state ruled much of the area that is known as Zimbabwe today, and parts of central. The Portuguese sought to monopolise this influence and began a series of wars which left the empire in near collapse in the early 17th century. As a direct response to increased presence in the interior, and especially due to the increasing amount of Carnegie family farmers, a new Shona state emerged, known as the. They continued the stone building traditions of the Zimbabwe and Mapungubwe kingdoms while adding to their arsenal and recruiting a professional army to defend recent conquests. The Ndebele fought their way northwards into the , leaving a trail of destruction in their wake and beginning an era of widespread devastation known as the. When converged on the Transvaal in 1836, they drove the tribe even further northward, with the assistance of Tswana Barolong Warriors and Griqua Commandos. By 1838, the Rozwi Empire, along with the other smaller Shona states were conquered by the Ndebele and reduced to. After losing their remaining South African lands in 1840, Mzilikazi and his tribe permanently settled in the southwest of present-day Zimbabwe in what became known as , establishing as their capital. Mzilikazi then organised his society into a military system with regimental , similar to those of Shaka, which was stable enough to repel further Boer incursions. Mzilikazi died in 1868 and, following a violent power struggle, was succeeded by his son,. Colonial era and Rhodesia 1888—1964 in the 19th century. In the 1880s, white colonists arrived with 's BSAC. In 1888, Rhodes obtained a from of the peoples. He presented this concession to persuade the government of the United Kingdom to grant a to the company over , and its subject states such as as well. Rhodes used this document in 1890 to justify sending the , a group of Europeans protected by well-armed BSAP through Matabeleland and into Shona territory to establish Fort Salisbury now , and thereby establish over the area. In 1893 and 1894, with the help of their new guns, the BSAP would go on to defeat the Ndebele in the. In accordance with the terms of aforementioned concessions and treaties, mass settlement was encouraged, with the British maintaining control over labour as well as precious metals and other mineral resources. The region to the north was administered separately and later termed now. Shortly after Rhodes' disastrous on the , the Ndebele rebelled against white rule, led by their charismatic religious leader, Mlimo. The lasted in Matabeleland until 1896, when Mlimo was assassinated. Shona agitators staged unsuccessful revolts known as against company rule during 1896 and 1897. Southern Rhodesia was annexed by the on 12 September 1923. Shortly after annexation, on 1 October 1923, the first constitution for the new Colony of Southern Rhodesia came into force. Under the new constitution, Southern Rhodesia became a , subsequent to a 1922 referendum. Rhodesians of all races served on behalf of the United Kingdom during the two World Wars. Proportional to the white population, Southern Rhodesia contributed more per capita to both the and than any other part of the Empire, including Britain itself. In 1953, in the face of African opposition, Britain consolidated the two Rhodesias with in the ill-fated , which was essentially dominated by Southern Rhodesia. Growing and general dissent, particularly in Nyasaland, persuaded Britain to dissolve the Union in 1963, forming three separate divisions. While multiracial democracy was finally introduced to Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland, however, Southern Rhodesians of European ancestry continued to enjoy. It was the first such course taken by a British colony since the of 1776, which Smith and others indeed claimed provided a suitable precedent to their own actions. UDI and civil war 1965—1980 signing the on 11 November 1965 with his cabinet in audience. After the UDI , the British government petitioned the United Nations for against Rhodesia pending unsuccessful talks with Smith's administration in 1966 and 1968. In December 1966, the organisation complied, imposing the first mandatory trade embargo on an autonomous state. These sanctions were expanded again in 1968. The United Kingdom deemed the Rhodesian declaration an act of rebellion, but did not re-establish control by force. A subsequently ensued when 's ZAPU and 's ZANU , supported actively by communist powers and neighbouring African nations, initiated guerilla operations against Rhodesia's predominantly white government. ZAPU was supported by the , the and associated nations such as Cuba, and adopted a ideology; ZANU meanwhile aligned itself with and the bloc headed by the People's Republic of China. Smith declared Rhodesia a republic in 1970, following the results of a the previous year, but this went unrecognised internationally. Meanwhile, Rhodesia's internal conflict intensified, eventually forcing him to open negotiations with the militant nationalists. Bishop signs the Lancaster House Agreement seated next to. In March 1978, Smith reached an accord with three African leaders, led by Bishop , who offered to leave the white population comfortably entrenched in exchange for the establishment of a biracial democracy. As a result of the , were held in April 1979, concluding with the UANC carrying a majority of parliamentary seats. On 1 June 1979, Muzorewa, the UANC head, became prime minister and the country's name was changed to. The left control of the , civil service, judiciary, and a third of parliament seats to whites. On 12 June, the voted to lift economic pressure on the former Rhodesia. Following the CHOGM , held in , Zambia from 1 to 7 August in 1979, the British government invited Muzorewa, Mugabe, and Nkomo to participate in a constitutional conference at. The purpose of the conference was to discuss and reach an agreement on the terms of an independence constitution, and provide for elections supervised under British authority allowing Zimbabwe Rhodesia to proceed to legal independence. With , of the United Kingdom, in the chair, these discussions were mounted from 10 September to 15 December in 1979, producing a total of 47. On 21 December 1979, delegations from every major interest represented reached the , effectively ending the guerrilla war. On 11 December 1979, the Rhodesian House of Assembly voted 90 to nil to revert to British colonial status the 'aye' votes included Ian Smith himself. The bill then passed the Senate and was assented to by the President. With the arrival of , the new Governor, just after 2 p. Britain lifted sanctions on 12 December, and the on 16 December, before calling on its member states to do likewise on 21 December. Thus Zambia, Mozambique, Tanzania, Angola and Botswana lifted sanctions on 22—23 December; Australia partly pre-empted this, lifting all but trade sanctions on 18 December, and trade sanctions on 21 December. During the , Robert Mugabe and the ZANU party secured a landslide victory. Independence era 1980—present Trends in Zimbabwe's , 1970—2010. Robert Mugabe, leader of the ZANU party, was the country's first Prime Minister and Head of Government. Opposition to what was perceived as a Shona takeover immediately erupted around. Estimates for the number of deaths during the five-year Gukurahundi campaign ranged from 3,750 to 80,000. Thousands of others were tortured in military internment camps. The campaign officially ended in 1987 after Nkomo and Mugabe reached a unity agreement that merged their respective parties, creating the ZANU—PF. During the 1990s, students, , and other workers often demonstrated to express their growing discontent with Mugabe and ZANU-PF party policies. In 1996, civil servants, nurses, and went on strike over salary issues. The general health of the population also began to significantly decline; by 1997 an estimated 25% of the population had been infected by HIV in a pandemic that was affecting most of southern Africa. Land redistribution re-emerged as the main issue for the government around 1997. In 2000, the government pressed ahead with its programme, a policy involving compulsory land acquisition aimed at redistributing land from the minority white population to the majority black population. Confiscations of white farmland, continuous droughts, and a serious drop in external finance and other supports led to a sharp decline in agricultural exports, which were traditionally the country's leading export-producing sector. Some 58,000 independent black farmers have since experienced limited success in reviving the gutted cash crop sectors through efforts on a smaller scale. Map showing the food insecurity in Zimbabwe in June 2008 President Mugabe and the ZANU-PF party leadership found themselves beset by a wide range of international sanctions. In 2002, the nation was suspended from the due to the reckless farm seizures and blatant. The following year, Zimbabwean officials voluntarily terminated its Commonwealth membership. The ZDERA went into effect in 2002, creating a credit freeze of the Zimbabwean government through Section 4 C, Multilateral Financing Restriction. The bill was sponsored by , and co-sponsored by US senators , , and. The Zimbabwean government has described the operation as an attempt to provide decent housing to the population, although according to critics such as , authorities have yet to properly substantiate their claims. On 29 March 2008, Zimbabwe held a along with a. The results of this election were withheld for two weeks, after which it was generally acknowledged that the MDC-T had achieved a majority of one seat in the lower house of parliament. In September 2008, a was reached between Tsvangirai and President Mugabe, permitting the former to hold the office of prime minister. Due to ministerial differences between their respective political parties, the agreement was not fully implemented until 13 February 2009. Zimbabwean President attended the Independence Day celebrations in in July 2011 A 2011 survey by suggested that living conditions had improved since the power-sharing agreement. On 17 January 2013, Vice President died of cancer at St Anne's Hospital, at the age of 78. A new constitution approved in the curtails presidential powers. The alleged massive fraud and tried to seek relief through the courts. In a surprising moment of candour at the ZANU-PF congress in December 2014, President Robert Mugabe accidentally let slip that the opposition had in fact won the contentious 2008 polls by an astounding 73%. The army denied that their actions constituted a. Mugabe resigned on 21 November 2017, after leading the country for 37 years. Although under the Mugabe should be succeeded by Vice President , a supporter of , ZANU-PF chief whip stated to the news agency that Mnangagwa would be appointed as president. In December 2017 the website Zimbabwe News, calculating the cost of the Mugabe era using various statistics, said that at the time of independence in 1980, the country was growing economically at about 5 per cent a year, and had done so for quite a long time. The population growth in 1980 was among the highest in Africa at about 3,5 per cent per annum, doubling every 21 years. Had this growth been maintained, the population would have been 31 million. Instead, as of 2018, it is about 13 million. The discrepancies were believed to be partly caused by death from starvation and disease, and partly due to decreased fertility. The life expectancy has halved, and death from politically motivated violence sponsored by government exceeds 200,000 since 1980. The Mugabe government has directly or indirectly caused the deaths of at least 3 million Zimbabweans in 37 years. Zimbabwe map of Köppen climate classification. Zimbabwe is a landlocked country in southern Africa, lying between latitudes and , and longitudes and. It is bordered by to the south, to the west and southwest, to the northwest, and to the east and northeast. Its northwest corner is roughly 150 meters from , nearly forming a four-nation. Most of the country is elevated, consisting of a central plateau high veld stretching from the southwest northwards with altitudes between 1,000 and 1,600 m. The country's extreme east is mountainous, this area being known as the Eastern Highlands, with as the highest point at 2,592 m. About 20% of the country consists of low-lying areas, the low veld under 900m. The southern areas are known for their heat and aridity, parts of the central plateau receive frost in winter, the Zambezi valley is also known for its extreme heat and the Eastern Highlands usually experience cool temperatures and the highest rainfall in the country. The country's rainy season generally runs from late October to March and the hot climate is moderated by increasing altitude. Zimbabwe is faced with recurring droughts, the latest one commencing early in 2015 and ongoing into 2016. Severe storms are rare. Flora and fauna An elephant at a water hole in. The country is mostly savannah, although the moist and mountainous eastern highlands support areas of tropical evergreen and hardwood forests. Trees found in these Eastern Highlands include , , enormous specimens of strangling fig, forest newtonia, big leaf, white stinkwood, chirinda stinkwood, knobthorn and many others. In the low-lying parts of the country fever trees, mopane, combretum and baobabs abound. Much of the country is covered by miombo woodland, dominated by brachystegia species and others. Among the numerous flowers and shrubs are hibiscus, flame lily, snake lily, spider lily, leonotus, cassia, tree wisteria and dombeya. There are around 350 species of mammals that can be found in Zimbabwe. There are also many snakes and lizards, over 500 bird species, and 131 fish species. Environmental issues Large parts of Zimbabwe were once covered by forests with abundant wildlife. Wood and deforestation, due to , and lack of fuel, are major concerns and have led to erosion and land degradation which diminish the amount of fertile soil. Local farmers have also been criticised by environmentalists for burning off vegetation to heat their tobacco barns. Main articles: and Zimbabwe is a republic with a of government. The was abolished with the adoption of a new constitution after a in March 2013. Under the constitutional changes in 2005, an , the , was reinstated. The is the of Parliament. Former President 's commonly abbreviated ZANU-PF has been the dominant political party in Zimbabwe since independence. In 1987 then-prime minister Mugabe revised the constitution, abolishing the and the prime ministerial posts to form an executive president, a. His ZANU party has won every election since independence, in the 1990 election the second-placed party, 's Zimbabwe Unity Movement, won only 20% of the vote. During the 1995 parliamentary elections most opposition parties, including the ZUM, boycotted the voting, resulting in a near-sweep by the ruling party. When the opposition returned to the polls in 2000, they won 57 seats, only five fewer than ZANU. Presidential elections were again held in 2002 amid allegations of vote-rigging, intimidation and fraud. The were held on 31 March and multiple claims of vote rigging, election fraud and intimidation were made by the MDC and , calling for investigations into 32 of the 120 constituencies. Jonathan Moyo participated in the elections despite the allegations and won a seat as an independent member of Parliament. The official results required a runoff between Mugabe and , the opposition leader; the MDC challenged these results, claiming widespread election fraud by the Mugabe government. The run-off was scheduled for 27 June 2008. Supporters of the in 2005. The led by Morgan Tsvangirai is now the majority in the Lower chamber of Parliament. The MDC split into two factions. One faction , now led by contested the elections to the Senate, while the other, led by Tsvangirai, opposed to contesting the elections, stating that participation in a rigged election is tantamount to endorsing Mugabe's claim that past elections were free and fair. The opposition parties have resumed participation in national and local elections as recently as 2006. The two MDC camps had their congresses in 2006 with Tsvangirai being elected to lead , which has become more popular than the other group. Mutambara, a robotics professor and former robotics specialist has replaced who was the interim leader of MDC-M after the split. Morgan Tsvangirai did not participate in the Senate elections, while the Mutambara faction participated and won five seats in the Senate. The Mutambara formation has been weakened by defections from MPs and individuals who are disillusioned by their manifesto. As of 2008 , the Movement for Democratic Change has become the most popular, with crowds as large as 20,000 attending their rallies as compared to between 500—5,000 for the other formation. On 28 April 2008, Tsvangirai and Mutambara announced at a joint news conference in that the two MDC formations were co-operating, enabling the MDC to have a clear parliamentary majority. Tsvangirai said that Mugabe could not remain President without a parliamentary majority. On the same day, Silaigwana announced that the recounts for the final five constituencies had been completed, that the results were being collated and that they would be published on 29 April. In mid-September 2008, after protracted negotiations overseen by the leaders of South Africa and Mozambique, Mugabe and Tsvangirai signed a power-sharing deal which would see Mugabe retain control over the army. Donor nations have adopted a 'wait-and-see' attitude, wanting to see real change being brought about by this merger before committing themselves to funding rebuilding efforts, which are estimated to take at least five years. On 11 February 2009 Tsvangirai was sworn in as Prime Minister by President Mugabe. A representative of the organisation declined to speculate on how the money was spent, except that it was not for the intended purpose, and the government has failed to honour requests to return the money. In February 2013, Zimbabwe's election chief, , resigned due to ill health. His resignation came months before the country's constitutional referendum and elections. Human rights A demonstration in against. Protests are discouraged by Zimbabwean police in Zimbabwe. There are widespread reports of systematic and escalating violations of human rights in Zimbabwe under the and the dominant party, the. In 2011, there were reports of 640 corpses having been recovered from the Monkey William Mine in. They were allegedly authenticated by the Fallen Heroes Trust of Zimbabwe and the Department of National Museums and Monuments who are leading the exhumation process as victims of the Ian Smith regime during the. One body was identified as a ZANLA cadre, Cde Rauya, by the Fallen Heroes Trust Chief exhumer. Government Minister Saviour Kasukuwere admitted the remains were discovered in 2008, but claimed the remains were decades old despite clear evidence the exhumed skeletons still had hair and clothes. The opposition MDC called for research on all violence that included killings of its supporters during disputed elections in 2008. According to human rights organisations such as and the government of Zimbabwe violates the rights to shelter, food, and residence, and the. Since 1995, the government has against both homosexual men and women. Opposition gatherings are frequently the subject of brutal attacks by the police force, such as the crackdown on an 11 March 2007 MDC rally and several others during the 2008 election campaign. In the attacks of 2007, party leader and 49 other opposition activists were arrested and severely beaten by the police. After his release, Morgan Tsvangirai told the that he suffered head injuries and blows to the arms, knees and back, and that he lost a significant amount of blood and hundreds were killed. Police action was strongly condemned by the , , the and the United States. There are also abuses of media rights and access. The Zimbabwean government is accused of suppressing freedom of the press and freedom of speech. It has been repeatedly accused of using the public broadcaster, the , as a propaganda tool. Newspapers critical of the government, such as the , closed after bombs exploded at their offices and the government refused to renew their license. In 2009 reporting restrictions on the BBC and CNN were lifted. Sky News continue to report on happenings within Zimbabwe from neighbouring countries like South Africa. Armed forces The flag of the. The Zimbabwe Defence Forces were set up by unifying three insurrectionist forces — the ZANLA , the ZIPRA , and the RSF — after the and Zimbabwean independence in 1980. The integration period saw the formation of The ZNA and AFZ as separate entities under the command of Rtd General and Air Marshal who retired in 1982, and was replaced by Air Marshal Azim Daudpota who handed over command to the late Rtd in 1985. In December 2003, General Constantine Chiwenga, was promoted and appointed Commander of the Zimbabwe Defence Forces. Sibanda replaced him as Commander of the Army. The ZNA currently has an active duty strength of 30,000. The Air Force has about 5,139 standing personnel. The includes Police Support Unit, Paramilitary Police is part of the Zimbabwe Defence Forces and numbers 25,000. Following majority rule in early 1980, trainers oversaw the integration of guerrilla fighters into a structure overlaid on the existing Rhodesian armed forces. For the first year, a system was followed where the top-performing candidate became battalion commander. If he or she was from ZANLA, then his or her second-in-command was the top-performing ZIPRA candidate, and vice versa. This ensured a balance between the two movements in the command structure. From early 1981, this system was abandoned in favour of political appointments, and ZANLA and ZANU fighters consequently quickly formed the majority of battalion commanders in the ZNA. The brigade support units were composed almost entirely of specialists of the former Rhodesian Army, while unintegrated battalions of the were assigned to the 1st, 3rd and 4th Brigades. Administrative divisions Zimbabwe has a and is divided into eight provinces and two cities with provincial status, for administrative purposes. Each province has a provincial capital from where government administration is usually carried out. Province Capital Bulawayo Harare The names of most of the provinces were generated from the and divide at the time of colonisation: Mashonaland was the territory occupied first by the British South Africa Company Pioneer Column and Matabeleland the territory conquered during the. This corresponds roughly to the precolonial territory of the and the , although there are significant ethnic minorities in most provinces. Each province is headed by a Provincial Governor, appointed by the. The provincial government is run by a Provincial Administrator, appointed by the Public Service Commission. Other government functions at provincial level are carried out by provincial offices of national government departments. The provinces are subdivided into 59 and 1,200 sometimes referred to as municipalities. Each district is headed by a District Administrator, appointed by the Public Service Commission. There is also a Rural District Council, which appoints a chief executive officer. The Rural District Council is composed of elected ward councillors, the District Administrator and one representative of the chiefs traditional leaders appointed under customary law in the district. Other government functions at district level are carried out by district offices of national government departments. At the ward level there is a Ward Development Committee, comprising the elected ward councillor, the kraalheads traditional leaders subordinate to chiefs and representatives of Village Development Committees. Wards are subdivided into villages, each of which has an elected Village Development Committee and a Headman traditional leader subordinate to the kraalhead. A proportional representation of Zimbabwe's exports, 2010 Minerals, gold, and agriculture are the main foreign exports of Zimbabwe. Tourism also plays a key role in its economy. The mining sector remains very lucrative, with some of the world's largest reserves being mined by and Impala Platinum. The , discovered in 2006, are considered the biggest diamond find in over a century. They have the potential to improve the fiscal situation of the country considerably, but almost all revenues from the field have disappeared into the pockets of army officers and ZANU-PF politicians. Taxes and tariffs are high for private enterprises, while state enterprises are strongly subsidised. State regulation is costly to companies; starting or closing a business is slow and costly. Government spending was predicted to reach 67% of GDP in 2007. Tourism was an important industry for the country, but has been failing in recent years. The Zimbabwe Conservation Task Force released a report in June 2007, estimating 60% of Zimbabwe's wildlife has died since 2000 due to poaching and deforestation. The report warns that the loss of life combined with widespread is potentially disastrous for the tourist industry. The sector of Zimbabwe has been growing at a fast pace. A market in Since 1 January 2002, the government of Zimbabwe has had its lines of credit at international financial institutions frozen, through US legislation called the ZDERA. Section 4C instructs the Secretary of the Treasury to direct directors at international financial institutions to veto the extension of loans and credit to the Zimbabwean government. According to the United States, these target only seven specific businesses owned or controlled by government officials and not ordinary citizens. Zimbabwe maintained positive economic growth throughout the 1980s 5% GDP growth per year and 1990s 4. The economy declined from 2000: 5% decline in 2000, 8% in 2001, 12% in 2002 and 18% in 2003. Zimbabwe's involvement from 1998 to 2002 in the war in the drained hundreds of millions of dollars from the economy. From 1999—2009, Zimbabwe saw the lowest ever economic growth with an annual GDP decrease of 6. The downward spiral of the economy has been attributed mainly to mismanagement and corruption by the government and the eviction of more than 4,000 white farmers in the controversial land confiscations of 2000. The Zimbabwean government and its supporters attest that it was Western policies to avenge the expulsion of their kin that sabotaged the economy. By 2005, the purchasing power of the average Zimbabwean had dropped to the same levels in real terms as 1953. In 2005, the government, led by central bank governor , started making overtures that white farmers could come back. There were 400 to 500 still left in the country, but much of the land that had been confiscated was no longer productive. By 2016 there were about 300 farms owned by white farmers left out of the original 4,500. The farms left were either too remote or their owners had paid for protection or collaborated with the regime. In January 2007, the government issued long term leases to some white farmers. At the same time, however, the government also continued to demand that all remaining white farmers, who were given eviction notices earlier, vacate the land or risk being arrested. Inflation rose from an annual rate of 32% in 1998, to an official estimated high of 11,200,000% in August 2008 according to the country's Central Statistical Office. This represented a state of , and the central bank introduced a new 100 billion dollar note. On 29 January 2009, in an effort to counteract runaway inflation, acting Finance Minister announced that Zimbabweans will be permitted to use other, more stable currencies to do business, alongside the Zimbabwe dollar. In an effort to combat inflation and foster economic growth the Zimbabwean Dollar was suspended indefinitely on 12 April 2009. In 2016 Zimbabwe allowed trade in the and various other currencies such as the South Africa , the Botswana , the , and the Pound Sterling UK. After the formation of the Unity Government and the adoption of several currencies instead of the Zimbabwe dollar in 2009, the Zimbabwean economy rebounded. GDP grew by 8—9% a year between 2009 and 2012. By 2014, Zimbabwe had recovered to levels seen in the 1990s but between 2012 and 2016 growth faltered. The pan-African investment bank released a favourable report in February 2011 on investment prospects in Zimbabwe, citing an improved revenue base and higher tax receipts. As of October 2014, was Zimbabwe's largest gold miner. The group is looking to increase its production to 500,000 per annum by 2019. Agriculture Zimbabwe's commercial farming sector was traditionally a source of exports and foreign exchange, and provided 400,000 jobs. However, the government's land reform program badly damaged the sector, turning Zimbabwe into a net importer of food products. For example, between 2000 and 2016 annual wheat production fell from 250,000 tons to 60,000 tons, maize was reduced from two million tons to 500,000 tons and cattle slaughtered for beef fell from 605,000 to 244,000. Coffee production, once a prized export commodity came to a virtual halt after seizure or expropriation of white-owned coffee farms in 2000, and has never recovered. For the past ten years, the has been assisting Zimbabwe's farmers to adopt techniques, a sustainable method of farming that can help increase yields. By applying the three principles of minimum soil disturbance, legume-based cropping and the use of organic mulch, farmers can improve infiltration, reduce evaporation and soil erosion, and build up organic soil content. Cereal yields rose between 15 and 100 per cent across different regions. Tourism , the end of the upper and beginning of the middle Zambezi. Since the in 2000, tourism in Zimbabwe has steadily declined. After rising during the 1990s, 1. It is expected to rise 1. Employment in travel and tourism, as well as industries travel and tourism indirectly supports, was 5. Several airlines pulled out of Zimbabwe between 2000 and 2007. Australia's , Germany's , and were among the first to pull out and in 2007 suspended all direct flights to Harare. The country's flagship airline , which operated flights throughout Africa and a few destinations in Europe and Asia, ceased operations in February 2012. Zimbabwe has several major tourist attractions. Before the economic changes, much of the tourism for these locations came to the Zimbabwe side but now Zambia is the main beneficiary. The is also in this area and is one of the eight main in Zimbabwe, the largest of which is. The are a series of mountainous areas near the border with. The highest peak in Zimbabwe, at 2,593 m 8,507 ft is located here as well as the and the. Zimbabwe is unusual in Africa in that there are a number of ancient ruined cities built in a unique style. The most famous of these are the ruins in. Other ruins include , and. The are an area of and wooded valleys commencing some 22 miles 35 km south of in southern Zimbabwe. They have become famous and a tourist attraction due to their ancient shapes and local wildlife. Water supply and sanitation Main article: and in Zimbabwe is defined by many small scale successful programs but also by a general lack of improved water and systems for the majority of Zimbabwe. According to the in 2012, 80% of Zimbabweans had access to improved, i. Access to improved water supply and sanitation is distinctly less in rural areas. Public expenditure on education in Southern Africa as a share of GDP, 2012 or closest year. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 2015 There are many factors which continue to determine the nature, for the foreseeable future, of water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe. Three major factors are the severely depressed state of the Zimbabwean economy, the reluctance of foreign aid organizations to build and finance infrastructure projects, and the political instability of the Zimbabwean state. The country also has a well-developed education system, with one in eleven adults holding a tertiary degree. Scientific research output in terms of publications in Southern Africa, cumulative totals by field, 2008—2014. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 2015 , Figure 20. For instance, it currently lacks the critical mass of researchers needed to trigger innovation. The economic crisis has precipitated an exodus of university students and professionals in key areas of expertise medicine, engineering, etc. More than 22% of Zimbabwean tertiary students were completing their degrees abroad in 2012, compared to a 4% average for sub-Saharan Africa as a whole. In 2012, there were 200 researchers head count employed in the public sector, one-quarter of whom were women. This is double the continental average 91 in 2013 but only one-quarter the researcher density of South Africa 818 per million inhabitants. The government has created the Zimbabwe Human Capital Website to provide information for the diaspora on job and investment opportunities in Zimbabwe. Despite the fact that human resources are a pillar of any research and innovation policy, the Medium Term Plan 2011—2015 did not discuss any explicit policy for promoting postgraduate studies in science and engineering. The scarcity of new PhDs in science and engineering fields from the University of Zimbabwe in 2013 was symptomatic of this omission. Nor does the development agenda to 2018, the Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Economic Transformation, contain any specific targets for increasing the number of scientists and engineers, or the staffing requirements for industry and other productive sectors. In addition, the lack of co-ordination and coherence among governance structures has led to a multiplication of research priorities and poor implementation of existing policies. Scientific publication trends in the most productive SADC countries, 2005—2014. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 2015 , data from Thomson Reuters' Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded The country's Second Science and Technology Policy was launched in June 2012, after being elaborated with UNESCO assistance. It replaces the earlier policy dating from 2002. The 2012 policy prioritizes biotechnology, information and communication technologies ICTs , space sciences, nanotechnology, indigenous knowledge systems, technologies yet to emerge and scientific solutions to emergent environmental challenges. The Second Science and Technology Policy also asserts the government commitment to allocating at least 1% of GDP to research and development, focusing at least 60% of university education on developing skills in science and technology and ensuring that school pupils devote at least 30% of their time to studying science subjects. In 2014, Zimbabwe counted 21 publications per million inhabitants in internationally catalogued journals, according to Thomson Reuters' Web of Science Science Citation Index Expanded. This placed Zimbabwe sixth out of the 15 SADC countries, behind Namibia 59 , Mauritius 71 , Botswana 103 and, above all, South Africa 175 and the Seychelles 364. The average for sub-Saharan Africa was 20 scientific publications per million inhabitants, compared to a global average of 176 per million. A Traditional Healer of the majority 70% , holding a horn trumpet Zimbabwe's total population is 12. According to the United Nations , the life expectancy for men was 56 years and the life expectancy for women was 60 years of age 2012. An association of doctors in Zimbabwe has made calls for President Mugabe to make moves to assist the ailing health service. The was estimated to be 14% for people aged 15—49 in 2009. Some 85% of Zimbabweans are Christian; 62% of the population attends religious services regularly. The largest Christian churches are , Roman Catholic, and. As in other African countries, Christianity may be mixed with enduring traditional beliefs. Around 1% of the population is Muslim. A group of women and children in Norton, Zimbabwe Bantu-speaking ethnic groups make up 98% of the population. The majority people, the , comprise 70%. The are the second most populous with 20% of the population. The Ndebele descended from migrations in the 19th century and the other tribes with which they intermarried. Up to one million Ndebele may have left the country over the last five years, mainly for South Africa. Other ethnic groups make up the third largest with 2 to 5%: these are , , , , , , , , and. Minority ethnic groups include , who make up less than 1% of the total population. White Zimbabweans are mostly of British origin, but there are also , , , and communities. The white population dropped from a peak of around 278,000 or 4. The 2012 census lists the total white population at 28,782 roughly 0. Most emigration has been to the United Kingdom between Britons are of Rhodesian or Zimbabwean origin , South Africa, Botswana, Zambia, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. According to 2012 Census report, 99. Official fertility rates over the last decade were 3. Largest cities Language Main article: is the main language used in the education and judiciary systems. The and are the principal indigenous languages of Zimbabwe. Other minority Bantu languages include , , , , , and. Shona has a rich oral tradition, which was incorporated into the first Shona novel, Feso by , published in 1956. English is spoken primarily in the cities, but less so in rural areas. Radio and television news now broadcast in Shona, Sindebele and English. Refugee crisis The economic meltdown and repressive political measures in Zimbabwe have led to a flood of refugees into neighbouring countries. Some 3,000,000 of these left for South Africa and Botswana. Apart from the people who fled into the neighbouring countries, there are approximately 36,000 internally displaced persons IDPs. There is no current comprehensive survey, although the following figures are available: Survey Number Date Source National Survey 880—960,000 2007 Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee Former Farm Workers 1,000,000 2008 UNDP Victims of 570,000 2005 UN People Displaced by Political Violence 36,000 2008 UN The above surveys do not include people displaced by Operation Chikorokoza Chapera or beneficiaries of the fast-track land reform programme but who have since been evicted. Religion 2% An estimated 80% of the country's citizens identify themselves as Christians. Protestants mostly followers of Pentecostal African Churches are around 63% of the population. Estimates from 2005 said there were 1,145,000 Roman Catholics in Zimbabwe. This is about 9% of the total population. The followers of ethnic religions are around 11%. Around 1% are Muslims, mainly from Mozambique and Malawi, 0. Approximately 7% of citizens have no religious practice or are atheist. Main article: Zimbabwe has many different cultures which may include and , one of them being , Zimbabwe's largest ethnic group. The Shona people have many sculptures and which are made with the finest materials available. Zimbabwe first celebrated its independence on 18 April 1980. Celebrations are held at either the or in Harare. The first independence celebrations were held in 1980 at the Zimbabwe Grounds. At these celebrations are released to symbolise peace and fighter jets fly over and the is sung. The flame of independence is lit by the president after parades by the presidential family and members of the armed forces of Zimbabwe. The president also gives a speech to the people of Zimbabwe which is televised for those unable to attend the stadium. Zimbabwe also has a national beauty pageant, the contest which has been held annually ever since 2012. Among the distinctive qualities are symmetrically patterned woven baskets and stools carved out of a single piece of wood. Shona sculpture has become world-famous in recent years having found popularity in the 1940s. Most subjects of figures of stylised birds and human figures among others are made with rocks such as , as well as harder rocks such as and the rare stone. Zimbabwean artefacts can be found in countries like Singapore, China and Canada. Shona sculpture in has survived through the ages and the modern style is a fusion of African with European influences. World-renowned Zimbabwean sculptors include Nicholas, Nesbert and Anderson Mukomberanwa, Tapfuma Gutsa, Henry Munyaradzi and Locardia Ndandarika. Internationally, Zimbabwean sculptors have managed to influence a new generation of artists, particularly Black Americans, through lengthy apprenticeships with master sculptors in Zimbabwe. Contemporary artists like New York sculptor M. Scott Johnson and California sculptor Russel Albans have learned to fuse both African and Afro-diasporic aesthetics in a way that travels beyond the simplistic mimicry of African Art by some Black artists of past generations in the United States. Several authors are well known within Zimbabwe and abroad. The first , , wrote two books — and. The book by won an award in the UK in 1979 and the Nobel Prize-winning author 's first novel , the first four volumes of sequence, as well as the collection of short stories African Stories are set in Rhodesia. In 2013 NoViolet Bulawayo's novel We Need New Names was shortlisted for the. The novel tells the story of the devastation and emigration caused by the brutal suppression of Zimbabwean civilians during the in the early 1980s. A recurring theme in Zimbabwean art is the of man into beast. Zimbabwean musicians like , , the ; and have achieved international recognition. Among members of the white minority community, Theatre has a large following, with numerous theatrical companies performing in Zimbabwe's urban areas. Cuisine A meal of sadza right , greens, and goat. The goat's small intestines are wrapped around small pieces of large intestines before cooking. Like in many African countries, the majority of Zimbabweans depend on a few staple foods. After the paste has been cooking for several minutes, more cornmeal is added to thicken the paste. Bota is a thinner porridge, cooked without the additional cornmeal and usually flavoured with , milk, butter, or. Bota is usually eaten for breakfast. Raw Even though the are a small group 10% within the white minority group, Afrikaner recipes are popular. It is a long sausage, often well-spiced, composed of beef rather than pork, and barbecued. For example, most people will have in the morning, as well as 10 o'clock tea midday tea. They will have lunch, often leftovers from the night before, freshly cooked sadza, or sandwiches which is more common in the cities. After lunch, there is usually 4 o'clock tea afternoon tea , which is served before dinner. It is not uncommon for to be had after dinner. A local favourite is rice cooked with peanut butter, which is taken with thick gravy, mixed vegetables and meat. Mutakura can also be the above ingredients cooked individually. The team are currently ranked 26 in the world by World Rugby. It is one of ten playing nations and a full member as well. Notable cricket players from Zimbabwe include , and. Zimbabwe has won eight Olympic medals, one in at the in Moscow, and seven by swimmer , three at the and four at the. Zimbabwe has also done well in the and in swimming with Kirsty Coventry obtaining 11 gold medals in the different competitions. Zimbabwe has also competed at and the in tennis, most notably with the Black family, which comprises , and. Zimbabwe has also done well in golf. The Zimbabwean held the official World Number 1 status longer than any player from Africa has ever done in the 24-year history of the ranking. Other sports played in Zimbabwe are basketball, volleyball, , and , as well as , , martial arts, , cycling, , and. However, most of these sports do not have international representatives but instead stay at a junior or national level. Zimbabwean professional players currently playing overseas are and. Former players include now CEO who made an appearance for at the and featured for the as well as Zimbabwe-born former , who spent time at the. Media Main article: The media of Zimbabwe is now once again diverse, having come under tight restriction between 2002 and 2008 by the government during the growing economic and political crisis in the country. The Zimbabwean constitution promises freedom of the media and expression. Since the appointment of a new media and information minister in 2013 the media is currently facing less political interference and the supreme court has ruled some sections of the strict media laws as unconstitutional. In July 2009 the BBC and CNN were able to resume operations and report legally and openly from Zimbabwe. CNN welcomed the move. In 2010 the Zimbabwe Media Commission was established by the inclusive, power-sharing government. In May 2010 the Commission licensed three new privately owned newspapers, including the previously banned , for publication. In June 2010 became the first independent daily newspaper to be published in Zimbabwe in seven years. ZBC's monopoly in the broadcasting sector was ended with the licensing of two private radio stations in 2012. Since the 2002 Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act AIPPA was passed, a number of privately owned news outlets were shut down by the government, including whose managing director Wilf Mbanga went on to form the influential. As a result, many press organisations have been set up in both neighbouring and Western countries by Zimbabweans. Because the internet is currently unrestricted, many Zimbabweans are allowed to access online news sites set up by exiled journalists. The heavy-handedness on the media has progressively relaxed since 2009. In its 2008 report, ranked the Zimbabwean media as 151st out of 173. The government also bans many foreign broadcasting stations from Zimbabwe, including the , , , , , and. News agencies and newspapers from other Western countries and South Africa have also been banned from the country. Scouting 's drawing of Chief of Scouts , , 1896 It was in the region in Zimbabwe that, during the , , the founder of , and , the American born Chief of Scouts for the British Army, first met and began their lifelong friendship. In mid-June 1896, during a scouting patrol in the , Burnham began teaching Baden-Powell. Baden-Powell and Burnham discussed the concept of a broad training programme in woodcraft for young men, rich in exploration, , , and self-reliance. It was also during this time in the Matobo Hills that Baden-Powell first started to wear his signature like the one worn by Burnham. Scouting in the former started in 1909 when the first Boy Scout troop was registered. Scouting grew quickly and in 1924 Rhodesia and Nyasaland sent a large contingent to the second in. In 1959, Rhodesia hosted the Central African Jamboree at. In 2009, Scouts celebrated 100 years of Scouting in Zimbabwe and hundreds of Scouts camped at , a Scout campground and training area, as part of these celebrations. Besides scouting, there are also leadership, life skills and general knowledge courses and training experiences mainly for school children ranging from pre-school to final year high school students and some times those beyond High school. These courses and outings are held at, for example, Lasting Impressions on , Far and Wide Zimbabwe and Chimanimani Outward Bound at the archived 16 June 2007. National symbols Traditional Zimbabwe Bird design The stone-carved appears on the national flags and the coats of arms of both Zimbabwe and , as well as on and coins first on and then. It probably represents the or the. The famous bird carvings stood on walls and monoliths of the ancient city of , built, it is believed, sometime between the 13th and 16th centuries by ancestors of the. The ruins, which gave their name to modern Zimbabwe, cover some 1,800 acres 7. The rocks are perfectly balanced without other supports. They are created when ancient granite intrusions are exposed to weathering, as softer rocks surrounding them erode away. They are often remarked on and have been depicted on both the and the banknotes. The ones found on the current notes of Zimbabwe, named the Banknote Rocks, are located in , approximately 9 miles 14 km south east of Harare. There are many different formations of the rocks, incorporating single and paired columns of 3 or more rocks. These formations are a feature of south and east tropical Africa from northern South Africa northwards to. The most notable formations in Zimbabwe are located in the in. The winning entry was a song written by Professor and composed by Fred Changundega. It has been translated into all three of the main languages of Zimbabwe. At independence, the policies of racial inequality were reflected in the disease patterns of the black majority. The first five years after independence saw rapid gains in areas such as immunisation coverage, access to health care, and contraceptive prevalence rate. Zimbabwe was thus considered internationally to have an achieved a good record of health development. Zimbabwe suffered occasional outbreaks of acute diseases such as in 1994. The gains on the national health were eroded by structural adjustment in the 1990s, the impact of the and the economic crisis since the year 2000. In 2006, Zimbabwe had one of the lowest life expectancies in the world according to UN figure — 44 for men and 43 for women, down from 60 in 1990, but recovered to 60 in 2015. The health system has more or less collapsed. At the end of November 2008, some operations at three of Zimbabwe's four major referral hospitals had shut down, along with the Zimbabwe Medical School, and the fourth major hospital had two and no working. Due to , those hospitals still open were not able to obtain basic drugs and medicines. The situation changed drastically after the Unity Government and the introduction of the multi-currency system in February 2009 although the political and economic crisis also contributed to the emigration of the doctors and people with medical knowledge. In August 2008 large areas of Zimbabwe were struck by the ongoing epidemic. By December 2008 more than 10,000 people had been infected in all but one of Zimbabwe's provinces and the outbreak had spread to , Mozambique, South Africa and. On 4 December 2008 the declared the outbreak to be a national emergency and asked for international aid. By 9 March 2009 The World Health Organization WHO estimated that 4,011 people had succumbed to the waterborne disease since the outbreak began in August 2008, and the total number of cases recorded had reached 89,018. In , the city council offered free graves to cholera victims. There had been signs that the disease is abating, with cholera infections down by about 50% to around 4,000 cases a week. The 2014 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Zimbabwe was 614 compared to 960 in 2010—11 and 232 in 1990. The under 5 mortality rate, per 1,000 births was 75 in 2014 94 in 2009. The number of midwives per 1,000 live births was unavailable in 2016 and the lifetime risk of death for pregnant women 1 in 42. This is lower than the 92% recorded in 2010 by the and the 97. The education department has stated that 20,000 teachers have left Zimbabwe since 2007 and that half of Zimbabwe's children have not progressed beyond primary school. The wealthier portion of the population usually send their children to independent schools as opposed to the schools which are attended by the majority as these are subsidized by the government. School education was made free in 1980, but since 1988, the government has steadily increased the charges attached to school enrollment until they now greatly exceed the real value of fees in 1980. The Ministry of Education of Zimbabwe maintains and operates the government schools but the fees charged by independent schools are regulated by the cabinet of Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe's education system consists of 2 years of pre-school, 7 years of primary and 6 years of secondary schooling before students can enter university in the country or abroad. The academic year in Zimbabwe runs from January to December, with three terms, broken up by one month holidays, with a total of 40 weeks of school per year. National examinations are written during the third term in November, with and subjects also offered in June. There are seven public Government universities as well as four church-related universities in Zimbabwe that are fully internationally accredited. The , the first and largest, was built in 1952 and is located in the Harare suburb of. Notable from Zimbabwean universities include ; Peter Moyo of Amabhubesi ; , , Zimbabwean poet, novelist and essayist; and. Many of the current politicians in the government of Zimbabwe have obtained degrees from universities in USA or other universities abroad. NUST is the second largest public research university in Zimbabwe located in Bulawayo. It was established in 1991. The National University of Science and Technology strives to become a flourishing and reputable institution not only in Zimbabwe and in Southern Africa but also among the international fraternity of Universities. Its guidance, cultural values is the encouragement of all its members and society of those attitudes of fair mindedness, understanding, tolerance and respect for people and views which are essential for the attainment and maintenance of justice, peace and harmony at all times. The institution has been growing steadily and has steady study material and learning facilities. The highest professional board for accountants is the ICAZ with direct relationships with similar bodies in South Africa, Canada, the UK and Australia. A qualified from Zimbabwe is also a member of similar bodies in these countries after writing a conversion paper. In addition, Zimbabwean-trained doctors only require one year of residence to be fully licensed doctors in the United States. The ZIE is the highest professional board for engineers. Education in Zimbabwe became under threat since the economic changes in 2000 with teachers going on strike because of low pay, students unable to concentrate because of hunger and the price of uniforms soaring making this standard a luxury. Teachers were also one of the main targets of Mugabe's attacks because he thought they were not strong supporters. The Beaver County Times. Retrieved 2 November 2011. International Association of University Professors of English Conference. Retrieved 10 September 2017. Zimbabwe National Statistical Agency. Archived from PDF on 3 September 2013. Retrieved 25 August 2013. Retrieved 21 July 2013. United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved 21 March 2017. Archived from on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 17 November 2017. Retrieved 6 May 2016. Retrieved 6 May 2016. Retrieved 6 May 2016. Retrieved 15 November 2017. Retrieved 19 November 2017. Retrieved 21 November 2017. Retrieved 14 December 2008. Great Zimbabwe: New Aspects of Archaeology. The Silence of Great Zimbabwe: Contested Landscapes and the Power of Heritage First ed. Trajectories of Nationalism, National Identity Formation and Crisis in a Postcolonial State First ed. Harare: Training Aids Development Group: 40. Zimbabwe: A Country Study. Retrieved 14 December 2008. Cecil Rhodes: A Study of a Career. Impressions of South Africa. There is little doubt now that after a few resignations here and there, the army, the Royal Navy and even the Royal Air Force supposedly the most disaffected service would have carried out any orders to subdue the first national treason against the Crown since the American War of Independence. Retrieved 14 December 2008. Re-living the Second Chimurenga: memories from the liberation struggle in Zimbabwe, Preben INT Kaarsholm. Ending Civil War: Rhodesia and Lebanon in Perspective. Retrieved 1 December 2007. London: John Blake Publishing Ltd. Against the Grain, Zebra, p. Mugabe: Power, Plunder and the Struggle for Zimbabwe. The Battle for Zimbabwe: The Final Countdown. Retrieved 8 August 2015. Archived from on 23 November 2008. Retrieved 9 December 2008. Retrieved 9 December 2008. Archived from on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 9 December 2008. Archived from on 2 September 2009. Retrieved 9 December 2008. Archived from on 8 January 2008. Archived from on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 9 December 2008. Retrieved 8 August 2015. The New York Times. Retrieved 21 July 2012. Council of the European Union. Archived from on 29 June 2007. Archived from on 5 July 2008. Retrieved 29 December 2016. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the. Retrieved 19 December 2008. Archived from on 10 October 2006. Retrieved 30 December 2013. Retrieved 21 August 2011. Archived from PDF on 12 December 2012. Retrieved 16 February 2012. Archived from on 30 January 2012. Retrieved 16 February 2012. Retrieved 30 December 2013. Archived from on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 16 March 2013. Retrieved 8 July 2016. The Telegraph Telegraph Magazine ed. Retrieved 7 June 2016. Retrieved 7 July 2016. Retrieved 25 July 2016. Retrieved 12 March 2018. Continent in the Balance: Zimbabwe-Juvenile literature. Philadelphia, PA: Mason Crest Publishers;. Archived from on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 21 March 2015. Encyclopædia Britannica 2007 Ultimate Reference Suite, Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from on 27 December 2007. Retrieved 6 January 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2012. Archived from on 29 December 2013. Archived from on 2 May 2008. Retrieved 13 February 2009. Retrieved 6 June 2012. The New York Times. Retrieved 30 December 2013. Retrieved 30 December 2013. Archived from on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 30 December 2013. Retrieved 30 December 2013. Archived from on 7 December 2014. Archived from on 3 December 2007. Retrieved 2 December 2007. Archived from on 11 October 2007. Retrieved 2 December 2007. The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved 7 December 2008. Retrieved 2 December 2007. Archived from on 16 March 2007. Retrieved 14 March 2007. Retrieved 6 June 2012. The New York Times. Retrieved 6 June 2012. Retrieved 6 June 2012. Archived from on 23 June 2008. Retrieved 1 June 2016. Archived from on 2 November 2007. Retrieved 17 November 2007. Retrieved 17 April 2009. Archived from on 5 January 2008. Mukiwa — A White Boy in Africa. Archived from on 2 November 2007. Retrieved 11 November 2007. Zimbabwe Defence Forces News. Retrieved 18 April 2009. Archived from PDF on 21 December 2008. Retrieved 19 December 2008. Archived from PDF on 27 December 2013. Retrieved 19 December 2008. Archived from PDF on 27 December 2013. Retrieved 19 December 2008. Archived from PDF on 4 September 2015. Retrieved 19 December 2008. Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada. Archived from on 26 February 2008. Retrieved 2 December 2007. Since the country is well endowed with natural resources such as minerals, and , many opportunities lie in resource-based activities such as mining, agriculture and tourism and their downstream industrial activities. Retrieved 19 December 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2012. Archived from on 1 January 2008. Retrieved 3 December 2007. Zimbabwe remains South Africa's most important trading partner in Africa. Retrieved 6 June 2012. Retrieved 30 May 2010. Retrieved 5 August 2007. Archived from on 3 June 2006. Archived from PDF on 2 January 2011. Retrieved 10 November 2010. Archived from the original on 2 June 2010. Retrieved 16 March 2007. CS1 maint: Unfit url , Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum 1999. Guinness Book of Records 2014. Archived from the original on 29 June 2006. Retrieved 20 September 2007. CS1 maint: Unfit url. Retrieved 6 June 2012. Archived from on 6 January 2012. Retrieved 6 June 2012. Retrieved 4 April 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2011. Retrieved 6 June 2012. Retrieved 4 May 2016. Archived from on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 28 March 2010. Retrieved 4 April 2011. Retrieved 8 January 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2017. Archived from on 12 November 2010. Royal Institute for International Affairs. Retrieved 8 January 2017. Archived from on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2011. Archived from on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2016. Retrieved 16 November 2007. Archived from on 30 November 2007. Retrieved 16 November 2007. Retrieved 6 June 2012. Archived from on 3 December 2007. Retrieved 16 November 2007. Archived from on 1 November 2013. GO—SPIN Profiles in Science, Technology and Innovation. Retrieved 17 January 2015. The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 10 April 2006. Retrieved 16 January 2011. Retrieved 3 December 2007. Archived from on 31 October 2007. Retrieved 13 November 2007. Retrieved 22 January 2008. Retrieved 3 December 2007. An estimated 1% of the total population is Muslim. Archived from on 12 July 2007. Retrieved 13 November 2007. Retrieved 6 January 2008. Southern Africa: society, economy, and liberation. Michigan State University, University of Minnesota. Archived from PDF on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 1 June 2016. Retrieved 6 April 2010. Sokwanele Civic Action Group. Archived from on 28 September 2007. Geneva: Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre. Retrieved 9 November 2010. Geneva: UN Special Envoy on Human Settlements Issues in Zimbabwe. Archived from PDF on 27 July 2005. Retrieved 13 April 2009. University of Chicago Press. Culture and Customs of Zimbabwe. Archived from on 10 October 2006. Retrieved 6 January 2008. Zimbabwe — Poetry International Web. Archived from on 16 October 2007. Archived from on 30 October 2007. Retrieved 2 November 2007. Archived from on 1 October 2000. Retrieved 6 January 2008. Retrieved 3 November 2007. Retrieved 3 October 2006. Archived from on 9 May 2006. Retrieved 22 July 2007. Archived from on 28 January 2007. Retrieved 9 June 2007. Archived from on 6 June 2007. Retrieved 9 June 2007. Retrieved 29 August 2007. Free TV 4 Africa. Archived from on 8 February 2013. Retrieved 6 June 2012. Archived from on 25 December 2015. Retrieved 18 February 2017. Archived from on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 18 February 2017. Retrieved 18 February 2017. Committee to Protect Journalist. Archived from on 25 July 2014. Archived from on 1 November 2008. Retrieved 28 March 2010. Retrieved 6 June 2012. Scouting on Two Continents. Archived from on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 26 August 2009. The South African Archaeological Bulletin. Archived from on 9 August 2007. Archived from on 17 August 2009. Retrieved 15 November 2007. Adjustment with a human face, Vol. II: country case studies. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. Retrieved 7 December 2008. Retrieved 3 December 2008. Retrieved 3 December 2008. Retrieved 2 December 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2012. Retrieved 4 December 2008. Archived from on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 4 December 2008. Archived from on 6 December 2008. Retrieved 3 December 2008. United Nations Population Fund. Retrieved 1 June 2016. Archived from on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 28 September 2009. Archived from on 18 November 2007. Retrieved 15 November 2007. Retrieved 3 November 2007. Catastrophe: What Went Wrong in Zimbabwe? Scholarly essays on displacement as a result of Zimbabwe's continuing crisis, with a focus on diasporic communities in Britain and South Africa; also explores such topics as the revival of Rhodesian discourse. Mugabe: Power, Plunder, and the Struggle for Zimbabwe's Future 2007. Bitter Harvest: Zimbabwe and the Aftermath of its Independence 2008.